Musical Memory

The_Music_MachineThe cream of the crop students sat in an International Baccalaureate high school history class. They listened attentively to a teacher who had come back from retirement just to teach such a group. Strolling back and forth in front of a map bedecked white board he inquired loudly. “Does anyone know what happened in the United States between 1963 and ‘68? There were a number of good answers that they could have given for the turbulent times of the civil rights movement and Vietnam war that were so influential in the coming of age for many baby boomers. But in 2013, the students just sat there mute.

Finally, one child took a stab at describing that time, “Simon and Garfunkel wrote a lot of good music?” she responded questioning.

“Yes, that’s true.” The teacher could not help but smile. “Though not exactly what I was looking for.”

But it didn’t matter that this teacher had previously shared his own experience as a Vietnam veteran. The class took this begrudging acknowledgement as a prompt to ask if he was referring to the music of Bob Dylan or Jimi Hendrix or a number of groups who rose to fame in the sixties. It seemed as if these students knew the music the previous generations well, but not their politics and history.

When I was growing up I had very little interest in the popular music of my parents’ time. Most of it seemed very bland or based on Broadway musicals. Coming of age during a depression, they certainly didn’t have money for indulging in phonograph recordings of the latest hits. However, I knew a bit of their history particularly that surrounding the United States presidents and World War II. In fact, when in high school I could rattle off the countries, heads of state and even generals who figured so prominently in this war.

Why did these apparently knowledgeable students know more about popular culture than politics that occurred during their parent’ time? World War II was considered an honorable war, fought against villainous leaders. It had been glamorized in countless movies and books, and had not suffered from the same denouncements as the conflict in Vietnam. The baby boomer’s ambivalence and even resistance to supporting a country’s war efforts made political events not clear cut. But their music –a unique combination of folk and jazz that led to the birth of rock and roll,–seemed to be something to brag about.

Each generation tends to identify previous ones by what they valued. So the jury is still out on generation who have recently become adults. We will have to wait and see what their children remember their parents proudly telling them about their place in history.

Posted in Education trends, Generational differences | 1 Comment

Different in the same way

600px-Tie-dyeIn 1966 my parents decided it was time to take a grand tour of the country. For three weeks we traveled west of the Mississippi, camping most of the way, hopping from national park to national park (Thank you Teddy Roosevelt, the parks were and still are an excellent idea.).  Halfway through the trip we ended up in San Francisco. Dad wanted to see Golden Gate Bridge, Mom wanted to see Fisherman’s Wharf, and I wanted to ride the cable cars up and down the thrillingly steep streets. My older brother, who had just started to high school, wanted to visit Haight-Ashbury.

So one evening our family, parents with four children nicely dressed for our visit to the big city, walked through this quiet bohemian neighborhood with rows of old apartments crammed against the sidewalk. We stopped in a small store filled with a strange assortment of items; the walls were papered in posters with brilliantly colored surreal patterns. It was the type of establishment that would later be called a head shop. There my older brother got his prized underground newspaper. I found the posters an interesting style, and learned what “psychedelic” meant, but I am sure we weren’t the typical clientele in this birthplace of the hippie movement.

We had taken the grand tour of the country early in the “summer of love.” We arrived at San Francisco when over 100,000 teenagers and college students were about to descend on this same neighborhood to celebrate a counterculture of yet to be illegal drugs and free love. If it hadn’t been a chilly night, when most of the early arrivals were indoors, I am sure my parents would have vetoed my brother’s request. But instead, I had the privilege of sight-seeing in Haight-Ashbury at the cusp of it becoming overwhelmingly famous as a hippie haven, not realizing that my brother knew things ahead of his peers. (Although my brother was aware of the hippie movement, he was never drawn into it.)

Now that I reflect on my past, it is amazing that a crowd as large as the baby boomers conformed as much to each other as they did. Perhaps it was the sheer numbers of people born from 1946 to 1964 that caused business to cater to them. Fashions aimed at girls my age – short, brightly flowered A-lined shifts, embroidered caftans, bell bottom jeans – were obviously divergent from what our mothers wore, but the same as all the other girls. The guys my age hummed the same tunes. Almost all knew the words to the latest song by Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane and the Doors. I wasn’t completely comfortable with that kind of conformity. Hearing the Billboard top forty played over and over again on the radio was a bit boring. When I moved into a new high school, I came dressed in one of my fashionable turn-of-the decade seventies outfits. I was an outsider, only having  a few friends that hung out on the fringe. One friend pointed  out to me that it was the same outfit that a popular girl had worn. I never wore it again.

As I look back on growing up as a baby boomer, I now see that my generation’s break with the values of the prior generation, distrust of government, and rejection of consumerism were often orchestrated events. Many of my peers thought that rebelling against parents was a universal trait. We wanted to be different from the older generation, but weren’t willing to travel that path alone, or even in small groups. The sit-ins, marches and the rock music festivals were a way to be with others with similar tastes, to be surrounded by a large company of peers. We wanted to be different in the same way.

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When we were young

04242012semana_de_la_cultura086As the facilitator circled the table asking the typical questions, such as “Where are you from?” and “What do you do?” I felt like I was being a bit oppositional. If I admitted to being born in Indiana, anyone who had even visited the state would ask me about it, and as my parents moved to another state when I was six weeks old and never returned, I was basically clueless about life in Indiana. So I answered “I’m from nowhere,” and explained my dilemma.

Unfazed he asked, “Where did you grow up?”

“Kentucky, Illinois, Ohio, three different times… Mississippi. We moved every few years.”

“Okay, where did you graduate from high school?” He was being cautious, as some of the attendees were older than me and never found a need to go beyond high school to find a decent job.

“I didn’t.” I replied, “But I have a Master’s degree.” That was a bit of story to explain, too. My family moved to Mississippi at the end of my junior year during the factious days of public school integration. The Deep South high schools were far behind the ones I had attended in Illinois and Ohio. So, on the recommendation of a local professor, I applied for college, and got accepted, even receiving a small scholarship. They did not see me as any different than students coming from unaccredited private high schools.

“And what do you do?”

My identity is supposed to be all about work. But I’ve changed careers multiple times. Currently, I work in a field born about the same time as I was and still have to explain what an instructional designer does to ninety-nine percent of the people I meet.

As he questioned the younger people in the room, I realized that my path of growing up – living multiple places, changing careers, working in a new field and returning to college for more education – was the path more likely to be taken by millennials than baby boomers.  I did lack the opportunity to teeth on technology growing up. The first computer I glimpsed at age six contained banks of reel-to-reel tapes with blinking lights and filled a bedroom sized area. But I didn’t get my hands on a computer until high school. It was the only one in the entire high school, and it had its own closet, a much tinier room than that filled by the first computer I saw. One had to create programs in Basic on punch cards and wait until the teacher tested them to see if they actually worked on the computer.

However, my generation was marked by events as impactful as growing up with computers and the internet as part of daily life. These included the civil rights movement and the Vietnam War, which resulted in a distrust of authority and an attempt to make a complete break with life style of the older generation by many. This may seem ironic to those who now see baby boomers as conventional and bound to their jobs as proof of self-worth. Sometimes I suspect the grumbling about this young “Millennial” generation is just a projection of our own thoughts. We expect the following generation to make a break with the previous one, because that’s exactly what we did. Why should they be any different than us, when we were young?

photo By Angélica Martínez – Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Mexico City, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25543037

 

Posted in Generational differences, The information age | Leave a comment

Why leaders aren’t more self-aware

Kaiser Wilhelm II statue in Koln, Germany

Kaiser Wilhelm II An example of a leader low in self awareness.

Perhaps the last century’s swing towards the outgoing, outspoken, in charge leader, who always exuded confidence has created the increasing need for cultivating self-aware leaders.[1]  Before the twentieth century it was often considered egotistical for leaders to promote themselves. When the newly formed Continental Congress nominated George Washington to be commander-in-chief, he was not one of the most experienced candidates. He did not campaign to become the head general of the new, inexperienced and poorly equipped army, but he relied on others to recognize his potential in this position. For many leaders in today’s world, depending on the judgment of  peers has become a thing of the past.

This tendency for leaders to not regard others opinions of them shows up prominently in Research by the Hay Group. Their study compared individuals’ concept of themselves against that held by peers, and their self-perceived abilities against actual abilities. Self-awareness was dismally low (under 20%) among managers. Knowing ones own abilities, shortcomings, and impact on others is assumed to be essential for any kind of leader, but often it is sadly lacking.[2]

Sometimes an increase in self-awareness can be related to a decrease in other “desirable” traits such as self-esteem. Recent research conducted on university campuses has come up with some intriguing results. Those students who became more self-aware started a noticeable downward drift when reporting on their level of a self-esteem.[3] There was also a significant relationship between self-awareness and self-acceptance. Research at the college level showed no difference in self-awareness among extroverts and introverts (the percentage of introverts in college is significantly higher than in the general population.). However, the introverts with higher levels of self-awareness tended to relate an experience of lower self-acceptance.[4]

We want leaders to be sure of themselves, and are often reluctant to follow someone who admits to weaknesses or expresses doubts. However, if people are actually honest, they would have to admit that they are not thrilled by the results when they examine their own internal emotions and motivations. Therefore some avoid looking too much into these things. This partial blindness does seem to provide a benefit to those seeking leadership positions. Research has shown that individuals who are self-deceptive when it comes to assessing themselves are also better at convincing others to trust in unrealistic and overly optimistic outcomes.[5]

So will the quest to improve self-awareness result in turning leaders into people who seem less like leaders? Or will we stick with over-confident people who have little concept of their own abilities?

[1] Rudd, Anthony. Self, Value, and Narrative: A Kierkegaardian Approach, OUP Oxford, Oct 25, 2012
[2] Baldoni, John. Few Executives are Self-aware, But Women Have the Edge. May 09, 2016
[3] John Ickes, William. Wicklund, Robert A. and Ferris C. Brian. Self awareness leads to lower self esteem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Volume 9, Issue 3, May 1973, Pages 202–219
[4] Vingoe, Frank J Rogers’ self theory and Eysenck’s extraversion and neuroticism. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol 32(5, Pt.1), Oct 1968, 618-620.
[5] Nauert, Rick. Overconfident People Likely to be Overrated. PsychCentral.com

 

Posted in Emotional intelligence, Leadership, Optimism and Pessimism | Tagged | 1 Comment

The price of self-awareness

Investing_money (1)Much of what I’ve perused recently on self-awareness tout the benefit of meditation in increasing self-awareness. This has led to a boom in meditation instructors providing both classes and retreats for mastering the techniques. Search for meditation on the internet and you will find hundreds, perhaps thousands of instructors willing to teach this skill for a fee. Many practitioners insist that you cannot learn to meditate properly without this kind of guidance and support, warning that students will not learn to overcome initial pitfalls and move on to a higher level of awareness.

I wondered how hard could it be to sit erect and still, eyes closed, palms up, chanting the same word over and controlling your breath, listening to your heartbeat, and continually emptying your mind? Now, I think about it, this could be a difficult feat to persist in an activity that is so boring. Indeed, one of the mistakes that some mediation teachers mentioned was people falling asleep during meditation (But  isn’t it supposed to be relaxing?). Another one was that people simply didn’t see what they were accomplishing through mediation and would give up. They needed encouragement to work hard if they wanted to improve at it. People do not just pay for an instructor, they pay for a coach to bolster their confidence, to keep selling them the product they have bought, to convince them they are accomplishing something when they do not see the advertised results (e.g. relief of stress, better concentration).

Claims are made that meditation relieves stress, improves ability to concentrate and generally increases sense of happiness and well-being. But, then people would not pay fees varying from a few hundred to over a thousand 1000.00 U.S. dollars to learn a skill that made no claims. The newest claims that attract CEOs and business owners is that meditation increases awareness and ability to concentrate, improving their business acumen and making it possible to grow their business in stress ridden economy.

This has left me wondering if meditation, which was originally a tenet of Buddhism, has become the newest “investment.” People invest in it making others wealthy and expecting that it improves their own ability to make money.

Photo –Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic

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Learning not to be self-aware

snobRecently I was reading research about grammar police, the people who notice every misspelling and usage error in your writing and assume that you are ignorant based on these errors. Evidently they are disagreeable–certifiably disagreeable.

One of the factors in the Five Factor Personality Analysis (often called the Big Five) is Agreeableness. Research has shown that subjects reading e-mails, both with and without spelling and grammar errors, downgraded their estimation of the person the most when they found errors if they also showed a low score on Agreeableness. No big deal, you probably expected that to be true.

One of the other factors of the Big Five is Extroversion. Introverts who indicated that good grammar was important to them, were more sensitive to these errors and downgraded the likability of the author of the e-mail much more severely than did introverts who didn’t care about grammar. Overall introverts where not as generous with their estimation of this unknown person as the extroverts. However, there was a definite correlation between how much (or how little) they cared about grammar and how much they expected to like the e-mail correspondent.

Results for extroverts were a little perplexing. “Surprisingly, extroverts who reported grammar as more important were less sensitive to typos than extroverts who felt good grammar was less important.”[1] Some extroverts said grammar was more important, but behaved as if it was not.  Why were they not noticing the typos? Did they over-estimate their ability at spelling and grammar? Or was this lack of self-awareness intentional?

This research may have provided a serendipitous insight into self-awareness and why it is rising on the list of desired traits of business leaders. Past researchers have found that the managers and executives are predominantly extroverts. Self-aware people are introspective and think about their own values and motives compared to their actions. But as hard as they try, they soon realize that they are not capable of behaving consistently according to their own values. There are different ways to respond to this realization: change values to match actions, give up being self-aware because “Nobody is perfect,” or intently focus on every error and spiral into depression.

Extroverts tend to avoid this last option. Evidently, simply avoiding reflecting on the effects of their actions is their preferred way of dealing with internal conflict. However, this lower self-awareness has some negative side effects when leaders fail to accurately estimate their own skill or understand their own motivation. We have yet to see whether self-awareness can be taught, or if it is as difficult as teaching extroverted people not to behave like extroverts.

[1] Boland JE, Queen R (2016) If You’re House Is Still Available, Send Me an Email: Personality Influences Reactions to Written Errors in Email Messages. PLoS ONE 11(3): e0149885. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149885

 

Posted in Emotional intelligence, Leadership, Self-awareness | 1 Comment

Self awareness and leadership

washington DSCN4525According to the original meaning of self-awareness over 99.9 % of humanity qualify for this trait because people are aware of their existence. So, this is not enough to be considered special. However, self-awareness has a new meaning along with a new claim that it distinguishes leaders from others, according to Daniel Goleman. [1]  

Self awareness starts with the idea of recognizing and regulating emotions. But, how frequently have we seen leader spewing angry words (or tweets) only to later regret their words? They express emotions powerfully, but have little ability to regulate them. Frequently they fail to understanding the impact of their own internal motivation on themselves.  

How important is control over your own emotions? If you feel vexed due to a person who chatters constantly with minimal output, you may decide to be self-aware and not speak your mind because they might be hurt by your critical words. Even children eventually learn to mask irritation. So, it would seem this skill  not hard to learn. However, we see some leaders confronting others in public with an openly emotional barrage of hostility. They have not figured out how to conceal feelings when faced by an annoying threat to their status.

Leaders may recognize that the polite route is not the best way to get others moving. An irate tone is a good motivator, so people use it too much. But this has a hidden cost for those in positions of power. Those under them become disengaged, demotivated, and very skilled at avoiding confrontation. After the initial rush to respond to the leader’s demand, they tend to find a corner to hide in and get good at looking busy.

The delicate balance between expressing feelings that are “negative” so people know they have fallen short of expectations, and saying words that are harmful may be impossible to achieve. A person may learn to regulate the expression of emotions, but  cannot regulate how sensitive or oblivious people are to what is said. People may take offense to a statement that is not even noticed by others. However, sensitive people who easily take offense to criticism can also use this to manipulate other people.

Concealing emotions comes at the cost of consuming energy. This all leads to the conclusion that people can be too self-aware, paying constant attention to how others respond and burning out through attempts to regulate how they appear. In reality a low level of self-awareness is often evident in leaders. [2] The cost of self-awareness may be one of the reasons why those desiring to be leaders have decided to toss this quality aside.

Photo from  http://pdpics.com/
[1] Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books
[2]  Goleman, D. Are Women More Emotionally Intelligent Than Men? Psychology Today, Posted Apr 29, 2011.1.
Posted in Emotional intelligence, Mental health | Tagged | 1 Comment

Solving the problem of being finite

DSCN0406cWhenever I see “problem solving” listed as a component of emotional intelligence, I tend to regard the rest of what the author says on that subject with skepticism. Typically problem solving is a combination of creativity and logic to generate an innovative idea and put it to practical use. Creativity hardly seems related to emotional intelligence, judging by the character of creative people. In fact researchers have found that one recurring trait of this creative group is a lack of regard for social skills. They tend to be less considerate, more likely to find fault, less agreeable and more rebellious than the average person.[1] [2]

However, articles keep popping up claiming a connection between emotional intelligence and problem solving.  One study dealt with problem solving by teams and correlated the ability to complete problem solving tasks higher totals on tests of emotional intelligence. [3] It makes sense that team members who stubbornly refuse to cooperate are going to impede the work of others. The research that indicates that emotional intelligence gives individuals the edge in problem solving is based on emotional intelligence as a cognitive skill. [4]

The emotional facilitation of “thinking and problem solving” is included in Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso’s Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale Test (MEIS).  This canhich can be used to assess emotional intelligence; however, the test functions much like an IQ test, and is composed of written and visual questions. It does not put individuals into situations in which observers rate their emotional intelligence. [5]

Research has shown that people who score high on both cognitive tests and the MEIS exhibit the best skills in problem solving.[6] Some researchers have found that higher cognitive skills are an even better predictor than high emotional intelligence for problem-solving skills, and other “life skills” such as lowering anxiety, increasing perception, and coping.[7]

So what is going on here? You have to look carefully at research on “EQ” and problem solving to see if IQ was accounted for, or even determined. There is a likelihood that emotional intelligence is similar to creativity in that it tends to increase with intelligence until it reaches a cap. People with IQ’s above 120 (considered the top end of the average range) do not show greater creativity  than people with IQ’s at that point. In fact people with IQ’s at the high end have a correlating  decrease in creativity. Emotional intelligence also seems to improve with cognitive intelligence up to a point and then apparently decreases. This seems to be particularly noticeable with people that have higher mathematical/logical skills. However, research has yet to determine what that cap point is.

So no matter how much you want to increase cognitive ability, creativity and emotional intelligence to all be above average, you will have to settle for something less. As much as we would like ignore the fact, human intelligence is very finite.

[1] BI Norwegian Business School (2013, April 2). The hunt for the creative individual. Science Daily. Retrieved January 11, 2014, from http://www.sciencedaily.com­/releases/2013/04/130402091133.htm
[2] King, L.A. Walker, L.M. Broyles, S.J. Creativity and the Five-Factor Model. Journal of Research in Personality, Volume 30, Issue 2, Pages 189-203 (2013)
[3] Peter J. Jordan & Ashlea C. Troth, Managing Emotions During Team Problem Solving: Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Resolution, Human Performance, Volume 17, Issue 2, 2004,pages 195-218
[4] http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3940005/
[5] Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence and the construction and regulation of feelings . Applied & Preventive Psychology 4:197-208 (1995)
[6] Laura Thi Lam & Susan L. Kirby, Is Emotional Intelligence an Advantage? An Exploration of the Impact of Emotional and General Intelligence on Individual Performance. The Journal of Social Psychology, Volume 142, Issue 1, 2002, pages 133-143
[7] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886905001534
Posted in Creativity, Emotional intelligence | Tagged | 1 Comment

Reading emotions

fear06 047bImagine that you are sitting down to holiday dinner at which a number of friends and family have gathered. The host, Micaela is young, a bit nervous, rushing about trying to please the guests. Timidly she offers a plate of brown patties, with a fine grain in plate of broth. When asked “What is it?” she responds smiling, “Pate foie gras… goose liver paste.” Sandy, sitting across the table momentarily curls up the side of her mouth in an sign of contempt.

Thoughts go rushing through your head. Did Micaela not see Sandy’s expression? Is she insulted by that look of disgust? Perhaps you should comment about what delicacy pate foie gras is to show your empathy for Micaela. But then, maybe Sandy finds force feeding geese a type of animal cruelty, and the expression of disgust was an automatic gut response. Perhaps you should encourage Sandy to speak up by reminding your host that some people may have ethical reasons not to eat this dish.

Part of emotional intelligence is the ability to read others emotions. However, most instruction in emotional intelligence does not tell you what to do with the skill of quickly detecting emotions. Basically it informs you that emotional intelligence will be a benefit if you learn it. So, now you have honed your skill to the point of recognizing a momentary micro-expression. But empathizing with a person requires a demonstration that you are taking their side.  Do you choose based on which person can benefit you the most?

This same interaction that occurred at the dinner table is repeated ad infinitum around the conference table in businesses. Emotional intelligence can be welded as a weapon to point out rivals’ doubt that they thought they were concealing. It can be used to find the secret to persuading others to join your camp, when there aren’t enough facts to support your ideas. Research on emotion recognition has shown that people who are skilled in reading feelings have often gained that ability to serve themselves, rather than others.

University of Michigan research has found that people who exhibit the personality trait, exploitativeness, (part of the scale to measure narcissism) are as good at reading expressions or emotion as empathetic people are. Two studies, one with 100 college students and another with 88 adults both resulted in this same conclusion. The major difference between subjects that scored higher in dispositional empathy and those that had narcissistic tendencies of a similar magnitude, is that the exploitative people could recognize negative emotions better. Researcher Sara Konath theorizes that this enables them to detect vulnerability in others. [1]

However, you may be aware that people tend not to hide “positive” affects like happiness, or contentment as much as they do anger, fear, disgust, etc. So in the practical everyday realm the narcissists are better at reading hidden emotions. Back to the dinner table… have you decided to empathize with the nervous host or disgusted guest? Perhaps considering the kind of person who can read negative emotions the best, you should just be quiet and not say anything at all.

[1] Konrath, S., Corneille, O., Bushman, B.J., and Luminet, O. The Relationship Between Narcissistic Exploitativeness, Dispositional Empathy, and Emotion Recognition Abilities Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, March 2014, Volume 38, Issue 1, pp 129-143
Posted in Emotional intelligence, Leadership, Manipulation | 3 Comments

When Emotional Intelligence is a liability

One of the four major branches of emotional intelligence (according to John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey) is the ability to reflectively regulate or manage emotions. This applies to managing your own emotions rather than those of other people. According to research by this team, people who understand their own emotions and “are confident about their abilities to regulate their affect, seem to be able to repair their moods more quickly and effectively following failure.” [1]

There are two things about this finding that piqued by interest. Regulating one’s own emotions and repairing one’s own mood are basically the same ability. These two skills should be found in the same people. However, most people appear to regulate their emotions.

The person who manages their own emotions may appear to minimize disappointment, frustration and anger while still being as disturbed as the person who sulks and rants after their plans bite the dust. However, the first group is definitely more pleasant to be around. If you are naturally reserved and never exhibit much emotion, you may have been told to be more open, because people cannot read you. However, people may not really want to see your feelings on display.

Some people are experts are manipulating their own affect, Those who are able to mold their own emotions and create favorable impressions of themselves must work at this because remaining calm when others panic requires effort in learning this skill. However, controlling emotional expressiveness comes at a price. One of the costs seems to be less expertise in skills that require logic. Psychologists Dana Joseph (University of Central Florida) and Daniel Newman (University of Illinois) analyzed every study they could find on the connection between job performance and emotional intelligence. Interestingly, certain types of jobs are performed better by people who don’t read others emotions or regulate their own. In these positions, such as mechanic, scientist or accountant, people with higher emotional intelligence typically exhibited poorer performance.[2]

While it is a good idea to learn how to hide exhibits of anger. It is not necessarily a bad thing to show a lack of enthusiasm or empathy. In learning the emotional expressiveness that enables you to persuade others, you may be sacrificing just as important skills that are part of very necessary professions.

[1] Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1993 (http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/EI%20Assets/Reprints…Mood%20Meas%20and%20Mood%20Cong/CA1995SaloveyMayer.pdf)
[2] https://news.cos.ucf.edu/the-dark-side-of-emotional-intelligence/
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